Metals and Mineral Ores
What Is Bauxite-Aluminium Used For?
Bauxite is not a mineral. It is a rock formed from a laterite soil that has been severely leached of silica and other soluble materials in a wet tropical or subtropical climate. It is the primary ore of aluminum. Almost all of the aluminum that has ever been produced has been extracted from bauxite.
Click on the following to see further details of what is is used for:
Current Bauxite-Alumnium Prices
http://aluminium.org.au/australian-bauxite/australian-bauxite
What Other Elements Are Found In Bauxite-Alumnium?
Go to these sites for additional information:
How To Mine For Bauxite-Aluminium
Go to this link to locate information on the mining of bauxite - aluminium:
https://aluminium.org.au/australian-bauxite/
http://www.docbrown.info/page04/Mextractb.htm
To see how it is mined, go to this YouTube Video Link:
Does Bauxite-Aluminium Need to be Refined, and if so, How is This Done?
What Other Countries Export/Produce Bauxite-Aluminium?
Click on the following link to see the Top countries exporting/producing Bauxite
Where Are the Main Deposits of Bauxite-Aluminium Found?
The top ten bauxite producing countries account for about 95% of the global bauxite output. Mining-technology.com profiles the ten biggest bauxite producers based on the latest production data.
Australia is the world's biggest bauxite producer, it produced 76.28 million tonnes (mt) of bauxite in 2012 accounting for about 31% of the world's output. Recoverable bauxite resources are estimated at 6,280mt, accounting for 22% of the world's total, also make Australia the second richest bauxite reserves holder after Guinea.
Use the previous link to see who are the leading countries exporting/producing Bauxite in the world.
Environmental Impact
See the following link about environmental issues relating to Bauxite mining:
What is Copper Used For?
All US coins are now copper alloys, and gun metals also contain copper. Most copper is used in electrical equipment such as wiring and motors. This is because it conducts both heat and electricity very well, and can be drawn into wires.
Click on the following link to find additional uses for copper:
http://geology.com/usgs/uses-of-copper/
https://www.ga.gov.au/education/classroom-resources/minerals-energy/australian-mineral-facts/copper
Current Copper Prices
Click on the chart to see current Copper prices
What Other Elements Are Found In Copper?
Click on the following link to see the elements found in Copper:
How To Mine For Copper
Copper ore is mined where it is roughly crushed, then hoisted to the surface for processing. From here, it is fed through a series of ball mills that grind the rock into a fine dust. This dust is then mixed with water and reagents in our concentrator's flotation circuit.
Click on the following YouTube video link to view the mining and refining process:
Does Copper Need To Be Refined, And If So, How Is It Done?
Click on the following link for the refining process explanation:
What Other Countries Export/Produce Copper?
Click on the following link to find the top export countries for copper:
http://metals.about.com/od/suppliersaz/tp/The-10-Biggest-Copper-Producers.htm
Where Are The Main Deposits Of Copper Found?
Use the following link to ascertain where the main deposits of Copper are found
http://metals.about.com/od/suppliersaz/tp/The-10-Biggest-Copper-Producers.htm
Environmental Impact
Click on the following article to view the environmental impact of mining for copper:
CURRENT GOLD VALUES
Click on the following link to find out today's Gold Prices (select AUD)
WHAT OTHER ELEMENTS ARE FOUND IN GOLD?
HOW TO SEARCH FOR AND MINE GOLD
Watch the following YouTube clip to see how Gold is produced:
GOLD MINING METHODS & TECHNIQUES
https://www.ga.gov.au/education/classroom-resources/minerals-energy/australian-mineral-facts/gold
DOES GOLD NEED TO BE REFINED AND IF SO, HOW IS IT DONE?
Click on the following clip to watch the refining process:
The final stage of gold production --refining -- involves removing impurities that remain after the smelting process. Refining companies receive doré bars, as well as scrap gold, and melt the metal in a furnace. Workers add borax and soda ash to the molten metal, which separates the pure gold from other precious and less precious metals. A sample is then taken to a lab for tests, or assays, that measure the gold content. In most cases, the gold is 99.9 percent pure. Workers cast the gold produced during refining into bars.
What happens next depends on how the gold will be used. Pure gold is generally too soft for most practical applications, so other metals are nearly always added to it. When gold is combined in this way, it forms an alloy. Scientists and goldsmiths often use colors to designate the various gold alloys that are possible. For example, white gold is made by combining gold with nickel, silver or palladium. Red or pink gold is an alloy of gold and copper. And blue gold is the result of mixing gold with iron.
Karatage refers to how much gold is present in an object versus another alloy. A higher karatage indicates a higher proportion of gold in the sample. So, 24-karat gold is 100 percent gold, while 12-karat gold has exactly half as much. The common karatages are shown in the accompanying sidebar.
Interestingly, different cultures prefer different karatages. For example, the people of India are partial to 22-karat gold, while Europeans prefer 18-karat gold. In the United States, 14-karat gold, which offers a balance between gold content, hardness and affordability, is by far the most popular.
Most people are familiar with karatage as it applies to jewelry, and jewelry accounts for nearly two-thirds of the global demand for gold.
Source : http://science.howstuffworks.com/gold5.htm
WHERE ARE THE MAIN DEPOSITS OF GOLD FOUND?
Located in South Africa, the Witwatersrand Basin represents the richest gold field ever discovered. It is estimated the 40% of all of the gold ever mined has come out of this particular Basin. In 1970, South Africa's output accounted for 79% of the world's gold production.
The World's 10 most prolific Gold Fields
http://www.cmi-gold-silver.com/blog/10-most-prolific-gold-fields-in-the-world/
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF GOLD MINING
Most consumers don't know where the gold in their products comes from, or how it is mined. Gold mining is one of the most destructive industries in the world. It can displace communities, contaminate drinking water, hurt workers, and destroy pristine environments. It pollutes water and land with mercury and cyanide, endangering the health of people and ecosystems. Producing gold for one wedding ring alone generates 20 tonnes of waste
Read the following article on Environmental Impacts of Gold Mining
http://nodirtygold.earthworksaction.org/impacts#.VeUMxWQkH8c
What is Iron Ore Used For?
Iron ore is a rock from which metallic iron can be economically extracted. These rocks are usually found in the form of hematite (Fe2O3) or magnetite (Fe3O4). About 98% of world iron ore production is used to make iron in the form of steel.
Click on the following link to find information and uses for iron ore:
https://www.ga.gov.au/education/classroom-resources/minerals-energy/australian-mineral-facts/iron
Current Iron Ore Values
What Other Elements Are Found In Iron Ore?
https://www.ga.gov.au/education/classroom-resources/minerals-energy/australian-mineral-facts/iron
How to Mine For Iron Ore
Concentration includes all the processes that will increase (upgrade) the iron content of an ore by removing impurities. Beneficiation, a slightly broader term, includes these processes as well as those that make an ore more usable by improving its physical properties (e.g. pelletising and sintering). Many of the iron ore mines employ some form of beneficiation to improve the grade and properties of their products. At Mount Tom Price, Paraburdoo and Mount Whaleback major concentrators have been constructed which enable low grade iron ores, including ores which have been contaminated with shale, to be mined and after upgrading, sold as high grade products. The operation of the concentrators has also increased the iron ore resources available at these mines.
Steel is produced at Port Kembla, Whyalla, Sydney, Mayfield and Laverton North. At Sydney (Rooty Hill), Mayfield and Laverton North, steel is produced entirely from the remelting of scrap iron and steel in electric arc furnaces (EAF). In 2009 Australian iron and steel production including recovery from scrap totaled 5.1 million tons which, although locally significant is small on a world wide scale.
Check out the following YouTube video link to see how iron ore is mined:
Does Iron Ore Need To Be Refined, And If So, How Is It Done?
Iron ore refining process uses heat and another substance, so that oxygen molecule can bond to them and separate from iron. Carbon readily bonds with oxygen and so coal or coke (a form or carbon) is used in the iron ore refining process. When the iron ore is heated up to over 900o C in the furnace along with coke, the iron will melt and carbon will combine with the oxygen atoms and forms different gases like carbon monoxide and carbon-di-oxide. The furnace for iron ore is built in a particular way so that these gases will escape from the top through a chimney. Theiron settles down in the furnace along with the silicates. The silicates are not removed in this process as carbon does not bind with them. The resultant metal is called “Wrought Iron” and since ancient times this was used by the blacksmiths to make the several tools and implements. Wrought iron is strong and at the same time malleable, but still contains silicates, and hence is not totally pure form of iron.
Iron ore refining process was modified a little so as to remove these silicates as well as to get a more pure form of iron called the Pig iron. In this process a blast furnace is used which has a silo structure, and limestone is added along with the coke. Limestone contains calcium and it has the capacity to bond with silicates present in the iron ore. After the bonding, the result is a material referred to as slag which forms a layer over the pure molten iron in the furnace. The Iron is drained off from an opening at the bottom of the blast furnace. Pig iron is purer and does not contain any oxygen or silicates and is used to make steel. Pig iron mixed with varying percentage of carbon can create steel of different strength.
What Other Countries Export/Produce Iron Ore?
Where Are The Main Deposits Of Iron Ore Found?
Click on the following link to find out the top producing countries of iron ore:
http://www.ironorefacts.com/the-facts/iron-ore-global-markets/
Environmental Impacts
The impact of the mining industry on the environment has been a public concern, with growing appreciation of the natural environment and increasing awareness of the possible harmful effects that the industry's activities can cause. The industry and government have responded with a number of initiatives and regulations to protect and manage the environmental effects of mining activities.
Cick on the following fact sheet link for information on the environmental impact from iron ore mining:
What Is Lead Used For?
The single most important commercial use of lead is in the manufacture of lead-acid storage batteries (see battery, electric). It is also used in alloys such as fusible metals, anti friction metals, solder, and type metal. Shot lead is an alloy of lead, antimony, and arsenic.
Click on the following link to find more uses for lead:
https://www.ga.gov.au/education/classroom-resources/minerals-energy/australian-mineral-facts/lead
https://web.stanford.edu/dept/EHS/prod/general/asbestoslead/leadfactsheet.html
Current Lead Values
Click on the following image to find today's current lead prices:
What Other Elements Are Found In Lead?
Click on the following link to find the elements of lead:
How to Mine For Lead
Does Lead Need to be Refined, and if so, How is this Done?
The removal of impurities and other metals from the crude Lead (S, Cu,Ni, As, Sb, Bi, Ag, Au, etc.) is Refining. The refining process is applied in several steps in kettles with addition of specific agents alternatively smaller quantities are processed by electrolytic refining.
A smelting plant stops at the stage of the fusion-reduction plant; it will produce what is known as hard or Antimonial Lead. If the plant is meant to produce soft Lead, the crude Lead must undergo a refining process. The removal of impurities and other metals from the crude Lead (S, Cu,Ni, As, Sb, Bi, Ag, Au, etc.) is Refining. The refining process is applied in several steps in kettles with addition of specific agents alternatively smaller quantities are processed by electrolytic refining.
A smelting plant stops at the stage of the fusion-reduction plant; it will produce what is known as hard or Antimonial Lead. If the plant is meant to produce soft Lead, the crude Lead must undergo a refining process. The objective of the refining process is to remove almost all copper (Cu), antimony (Sb), arsenic (As) and tin (Sn), since soft Lead are not allowed to have more than 10g per ton of these metals.
Click on the following YouTube video linkto watch the refining process:
What Other Countries Export/Produce Lead?
Where Are The Main Deposits Of Lead Found?
Environmental Impacts
Mining and smelting are important economic activities. However, mining-related industries are also some of the largest sources of environmental pollution from heavy metals. China is one of the largest producers and consumers of lead and zinc in the world.
A large amount of lead, zinc, and related elements, such as cadmium, have been released into the environment due to mineral processing activities and have impacted water resources, soils, vegetables, and crops. In some areas, this pollution is hazardous to human health.
Information on the Properties, Uses, History Formation, Resources, Mining and Processing of Tin, can be found on the following site:
What Is Nickel Used For?
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Nickel is used in many products some of you may use everyday including electric guitar strings, magnets and rechargeable batteries. The magnetic properties of nickel actually make it very important for use in computer hard drives.
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Nickel is added to a very important metal alloy- stainless steel. Stainless steel has numerous applications. It is used in cookware, cutlery, kitchen appliances, hardware, surgical instruments, storage tanks, firearms, car headlights, jewellery and watches.
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Various bronzes and brasses are made using nickel alloyed with other metals. Heat and electrical resistant alloys can also be made from nickel.
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Nickel is also added to superalloys. To find out more about these types of alloys see the post uses of cobalt
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Nickel is still used in many parts of the world in coins. The American nickel (worth 5 cents) is actually 75% copper and 25% nickel.
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Nickel foam or nickel mesh is used in alkaline fuel cells as part of the gas diffusion electrodes.
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Nickel is used in a process known as fire assay. This process helps identify the types of compounds in an ore, metal or alloy. Nickel is able to collect all the platinum group elements in this process. It also partially collects gold.
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In the science laboratory, nickel is typically used as a catalyst for a hydrogenation reaction
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https://www.ga.gov.au/education/classroom-resources/minerals-energy/australian-mineral-facts/nickel
Current Nickel Value
To view current nickel value, click the following link:
What Other Elements Are Found In Nickel?
Click on the following link to find the elements in nickel:
How To Mine For Nickel
Click on the following video to watch the mining of nickel:
Does Nickel Need to be Refined, and if so, How Is this Done?
Nickel is primarily produced from two dissimilar ores. They are sulfidic and lateritic. Sulfidic ores are generally found with copper-fertilized ores underground. The Lateritic ores typically exists in hot climatic areas. The process of lateritic building happens with time, in which, the natural cycle of extracting and depositing ore layers at varied levels under ground constantly exists. Lateric ores are taken out employing massive earthmovers and subsequently, the unnecessary boulders are removed from them.
When sulfidic ores are processed for gaining nickel, flash smelting is widely used. Nevertheless, electrical smelting is also used for highly complex raw materials whenever its flexibility is the foremost need. The earlier smelting processes of nickel like reverberatory furnaces are now out of use, as they give out environmental pollution. When using flash smelting, dry sulfide ores with less moisture are inserted to furnaces while simultaneously putting in heated air as well. This method oxidizes sulfur and iron. The heat produced in this way is enough to produce a liquid matte that contains of 45 percent of nickel as well as fluid slag. Nevertheless, matte in the furnace still has iron and sulfur.
These left overs are oxidized employing oxygen into the molten bath. This procedure converts it to iron oxide and sulfur dioxide. The oxidization done remains a slag like melt, which is skimmed off afterwards. This slag is then put into an electric furnace, which discards unnecessary metals and produces nickel.
Source : http://www.roughneckchronicles.com/Refining/nickelrefining.html
What Other Countries Export/Produce Nickel?
Click on the following map to see who produces/exports nickel:
Where Are The Main Deposits Of Nickel Found?
Click the following link to see who have the most deposits of Nickel
http://www.mapsofworld.com/minerals/world-nickel-producers.html
Environmental Impact
Nickel is released into the air by power plants and trash incinerators. It will then settle to the ground or fall down after reactions with raindrops. It usually takes a long time for nickel to be removed from air. Nickel can also end up in surface water when it is a part of wastewater streams.
The larger part of all nickel compounds that are released to the environment will adsorb to sediment or soil particles and become immobile as a result. In acidic ground however, nickel is bound to become more mobile and it will often rinse out to the groundwater.
There is not much information available on the effects of nickel upon organisms other than humans. We do know that high nickel concentrations on sandy soils can clearly damage plants and high nickel concentrations in surface waters can diminish the growth rates of algae. Micro organisms can also suffer from growth decline due to the presence of nickel, but they usually develop resistance to nickel after a while.
For animals nickel is an essential foodstuff in small amounts. But nickel is not only favorable as an essential element; it can also be dangerous when the maximum tolerable amounts are exceeded. This can cause various kinds of cancer on different sites within the bodies of animals, mainly of those that live near refineries.
Nickel is not known to accumulate in plants or animals. As a result nickel will not bio magnify up the food chain.
What Is Silver Used For?
Jewelry and silverware are only two uses of silver. Malleability, reflectivity, and luster make silver a beautiful choice. Because it is so soft, silver must be alloyed with base metals, like copper, as in the case of sterling silver(92.5% silver, 7.5% copper).
Click on the following links to find information and uses for Silver:
https://www.ga.gov.au/education/classroom-resources/minerals-energy/australian-mineral-facts/silver
Current Silver Values
Click on the following to check today's prices in (AUD)
What Other Elements Are Found In Silver?
Silver is found in elemental form and also in various ores such as argentite (silver sulfide, Ag2S) and horn silver (silver chloride, AgCl). Commercially, the main sources of silver are copper, copper-nickel,gold, lead, and lead-zinc ores.
Click on the following link to find what elements are in Silver:
How To Search and Mine Silver
Silver is found very rarely as natural nuggets, but it is usually combined with sulfur, arsenic, antimony, or chlorine and in various ores such as argentite (Ag2S), chlorargyrite ("horn silver," AgCl), and galena (a lead ore often containing significant amounts of silver). As silver is often found in conjunction with these or alloyed with other metals such as gold, it usually must be further extracted out through amalgamation or electrolysis.
Silver mining has been undertaken since early times. As silver is a precious metal often used for coins, its mining has historically often been lucrative. As with other precious metals such as gold, newly discovered deposits of silver ore have sparked silver rushes of miners seeking their fortunes. In recent centuries, large deposits were discovered and mined in the Americas, influencing the growth and development of Mexico, Andean countries such as Bolivia, Chile, and Peru, as well as Canada and the United States.
Click on the following YouTube video link to watch how Silver is mined:
Does Silver Need to be Refined, and if so, How is this Done?
Click on the following link to watch the refining process:
Silver sometimes occurs free (chemically uncombined) in nature, but is usually found combined with other elements. The principal ores of silver are argentite, consisting of silver and sulfur; polybasite, stephanite, and pyrargyrite, consisting of silver, antimony, and sulfur; proustite, consisting of silver, arsenic, and sulfur; and cerargyrite, consisting of silver and chlorine. Small amounts of silver occur in most gold ores and in various base metal ores, chiefly those of copper, lead, and zinc.
Silver deposits that lie far underground are mined by using deep shafts. Sometimes uncombined silver or silver ores occur as small nuggets or flakes that lie on or near the surface of the earth. Such deposits are worked by placer mining methods.
What Other Countries Export/Produce Silver?
TOP 14 COUNTRIES EXPORT/PRODUCE SILVER
1. Mexico
2. China
3. Peru
4. Australia
5. Russian Federation
6. Bolivia
7. Chile
8. Poland
9. United States
10. Kazakhstan
11. Argentina
12. Canada
13. India
14. Sweden
Source : http://www.indexmundi.com/minerals/?product=silver&graph=production
Where Are the Main Deposits of Silver Found?
Australia has the largest share of the world's economic silver resources, outstripping Mexico, Canada and the USA as a result of the discovery and development of the Cannington, Century and McArthur River lead-zinc-silver deposits. This position is further supported by resources in the many other base metal and gold deposits of various sizes in Australia.
Australia's silver production ranks after Mexico, Peru and the USA. About 25% of Australia's mine output is refined to silver metal and mainly sent to Japan. Most of the remainder is exported in lead bullion to the United Kingdom where it is extracted and refined.
In 1883, Charles Rasp discovered the Broken Hill heavy rocks which he thought may contain tin. Subsequent assays (analysis) of these rocks proved that he had located rich oxidized (weathered) silver and lead minerals. Ore is still being extracted from Broken Hill, which has been the largest producer of lead-zinc-silver in Australia.
Source : https://www.ga.gov.au/education/classroom-resources/minerals-energy/australian-mineral-facts/silver
Environmental Impacts
•Silver is toxic to all living cells
•Silver contributes to antibiotic resistance
•Silver is deposited around nerves and in deeper skin layers and may
cause permanent skin damage
•Silver is intimately associated with environmental contamination of
other toxic heavy metals such as mercury and lead
•Silver sticks to fish gills, potentially choking them to death
•Silver disturbs bacterial activity when cleaning sewage
•Silver prevents the use of sludge as fertilizer, needed for nutrient
recycling
For additional information, click on the following link:
http://ec.europa.eu/research/environment/pdf/hylanderhaxton_not_2906_en.pdf
Information on the Properties, Uses, History Formation, Resources, Mining and Processing of Tin, can be found on the following site:
https://www.ga.gov.au/education/classroom-resources/minerals-energy/australian-mineral-facts/tin
What is Titanium Used For?
Value of Titanium
What Other Elements Are Found in Titanium?
How is Titanium Mined?
Does Titanium Need Refining?
Which Countries Mine Titanium?
http://metalpedia.asianmetal.com/metal/titanium/resources&production.shtml
Where Are the Main World Deposits of Titanium?
https://www.mineralseducationcoalition.org/minerals/titanium
Environmental Impact
Environmental Impact
Information on the Properties, Uses, History Formation, Resources, Mining and Processing of Tin, can be found on the following site:
https://www.ga.gov.au/education/classroom-resources/minerals-energy/australian-mineral-facts/zinc
Australian Gems
Contents: Introduction; Precious, semi-precious or ornamental stones; The 4 c'd for gemstones; Formation.
https://www.ga.gov.au/education/classroom-resources/minerals-energy/australian-mineral-facts/australian-gems
What Are Diamonds Used For?
A diamond is a precious stone consisting of a clear and colourless crystalline form of pure carbon, the hardest naturally occurring substance
USES
- One of the most common uses of diamonds is in jewellery. Many rings and necklaces have diamonds. Well cut diamonds are very expensive because they make excellent jewellery. Diamonds are very beautiful and sparkle in the light.
- Synthetic diamonds (man-made) are mainly used for industrial applications. They are put in drill bits and saws to cut different materials.
- Other gemstones can be cut and polished by diamonds.
- Precision cutting can be achieved by using diamonds. This is called fine engraving. In case you haven’t noticed from the above points, diamonds are very hard which makes them ideal for cutting material.
- Windows that cover the openings of lasers, x-rays and vacuum chambers have diamonds in them.
- Diamonds are used as micro-bearings in many small mechanical devices. The main use is in watches.
- Diamonds are capable of absorbing a lot of heat. That makes them ideal for use in microelectronics to conduct heat away from heat-sensitive parts of the electronics.
- Microchips and computer processors are often coated in diamonds as they are semiconductors of electricity
Current Diamond Prices
https://www.ga.gov.au/education/classroom-resources/minerals-energy/australian-mineral-facts/diamond
What Other Elements Are Found In Diamonds?
How To Mine For Diamonds
https://www.ga.gov.au/education/classroom-resources/minerals-energy/australian-mineral-facts/diamond
Do Diamonds Need To Be Refined, And If So, How Is It Done?
What Other Countries Export/Produce Diamonds?
Where Are The Main Deposits Of Diamonds Found?
Environmental Impact
Go to these links to find out about the environment impact of diamond mining:
http://thegreenerdiamond.org/conflict-diamonds-2/environmental-impact/
Information on the Properties, Uses, History Formation, Resources, Mining and Processing of Emeralds, can be found on the following site:
https://www.ga.gov.au/education/classroom-resources/minerals-energy/australian-mineral-facts/emerald
Information on the Properties, Uses, History Formation, Resources, Mining and Processing of Garnets, can be found on the following site:
https://www.ga.gov.au/education/classroom-resources/minerals-energy/australian-mineral-facts/garnet
Information on the Properties, Uses, History Formation, Resources, Mining and Processing of Jade, can be found on the following site:
https://www.ga.gov.au/education/classroom-resources/minerals-energy/australian-mineral-facts/jade
Information on the Properties, Uses, History Formation, Resources, Mining and Processing of Opals, can be found on the following site:
https://www.ga.gov.au/education/classroom-resources/minerals-energy/australian-mineral-facts/opal
Information on the Properties, Uses, History Formation, Resources, Mining and Processing of Saphires and Rubies, can be found on the following site:
Information on the Properties, Uses, History Formation, Resources, Mining and Processing of Topaz, can be found on the following site:
https://www.ga.gov.au/education/classroom-resources/minerals-energy/australian-mineral-facts/topaz
Information on the Properties, Uses, History Formation, Resources, Mining and Processing of Zircon, can be found on the following site:
https://www.ga.gov.au/education/classroom-resources/minerals-energy/australian-mineral-facts/zircon
Mineral Sands AND Energy Resources
Information on the Properties, Uses, History Formation, Resources, Mining and Processing of Mineral Sands, can be found on the following site:
What is Titanium Used For?
Value of Titanium
What Other Elements Are Found in Titanium?
How is Titanium Mined?
Does Titanium Need Refining?
Which Countries Mine Titanium?
http://metalpedia.asianmetal.com/metal/titanium/resources&production.shtml
Where Are the Main World Deposits of Titanium?
https://www.mineralseducationcoalition.org/minerals/titanium
Environmental Impact
Environmental Impact
Information on the Properties, Uses, History Formation, Resources, Mining and Processing of Monazite, can be found on the following site:
https://www.ga.gov.au/scientific-topics/energy/resources/uranium-thorium/thorium-resources
Information on the Properties, Uses, History Formation, Resources, Mining and Processing of Zircon, can be found on the following site:
https://www.ga.gov.au/education/classroom-resources/minerals-energy/australian-mineral-facts/zircon
What is Uranium Used For?
Uranium is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol U and atomic number 92. Heavy, silvery-white, toxic, metallic , and naturally- radioactive , uranium belongs to the actinide series and its isotope 235 U is used as the fuel for nuclear reactors and the explosive material for nuclear weapons.
Source : http://ieer.org/resource/factsheets/uranium-its-uses-and-hazards/
https://www.ga.gov.au/scientific-topics/energy/resources/uranium-thorium/uranium-resources
Current Uranium Values
Click on the following image to view the current Uranium Values
What Other Elements Are Found in Uranium?
Click on the following link to find out what elements are in Uranium:
How To Mine For Uranium
Traditionally, uranium has been extracted from open-pits and underground mines. In the past decade, alternative techniques such in-situ leach mining, in which solutions are injected into underground deposits to dissolve uranium, have become more widely used. Most mines in the U.S. have shut down and imports account for about three-fourths of the roughly 16 metric tons of refined uranium used domestically each year — Canada being the largest single supplier.
The milling (refining) process extracts uranium oxide (U3O8) from ore to form yellow-cake, a yellow or brown powder that contains about 90 percent uranium oxide. Conventional mining techniques generate a substantial quantity of mill tailings waste during the milling phase, because the usable portion is generally less than one percent of the ore. (In-situ leach mining leaves the unusable portion in the ground, it does not generate this form of waste). The total volume of mill tailings generated in the U.S. is over 95 percent of the volume of all radioactive waste from all stages of the nuclear weapons and power production.
Click on the following YouTube video link to see how uranium is mined:
Does Uranium Need to be Refined, and if so, How is this Conducted?
Click on the following YouTube video link to find out how to refine Uranium:
What Other Countries Export/Produce Uranium?
Where Are The Main Deposits Of Uranium Found?
See the table above for the name of countries mining for uranium.
Environmental Impacts
In most respects the environmental aspects of a uranium mine are the same as those of other metalliferous mining
Most uranium mines in Australia and Canada have ISO 14001 certification
Radioactivity associated with the uranium ore requires some special management in addition to the general environmental controls of any mine.
The uranium itself has a very low level of radioactivity, comparable with granite. Virtually all the radioactive material from the associated minerals in the ore processed ends up in the tailings dam.
In many respects uranium mining is much the same as any other mining. Projects must have environmental approvals prior to commencing, and must comply with all environmental, safety and occupational health conditions applicable. Increasingly, these are governed by international standards, with external audits.
Once approved, open pits or shafts and drives are dug, waste rock and overburden is placed in engineered dumps. Tailings from the ore processing must be placed in engineered dams or underground. Finally the whole site must be rehabilitated at the end of the project. Meanwhile air and water pollution must be avoided.
These processes are common to all metalliferous mining, and are well recognised and understood.
In the case of in situ leach (ISL) mining, there is much less disturbance – simply multiple bore holes, and rehabilitation is simpler.
By comparing currently leading approaches with outdated practices, this report demonstrates how uranium mining can be conducted in a way that protects workers, the public and the environment. Innovative, modern mining practices combined with strictly-enforced regulatory standards are geared towards avoiding past mistakes committed primarily during the early history of the industry when maximizing uranium production was the principal operating consideration.
What Is Gas Used For?
In the United States, most natural gas is burned as a fuel. In 2012 about 30% of the energy consumed across the nation was obtained from natural gas. It was used to generate electricity, heat buildings, fuel vehicles, heat water, bake foods, power industrial furnaces, and even run air conditioners.
https://www.ga.gov.au/scientific-topics/energy/resources/petroleum-resources/gas
Click on the following link to find information on other uses of gas:
Current Gas Prices
Click on the image below to view the current prices on gas:
What Other Elements Are Found In Gas?
Click on the following image to see the elements found in gas:
How To Mine For Gas
Coal seam gas mining involves drilling deep into the earth to extract methane held in a coal seam. In order to extract the gas, large volumes of salty water contained in the coal seam need to be brought to the surface.This water is the major waste product from coal seam gas mining. Methods used to extract the gas include hydraulic fracturing or lateral drilling. Both of these methods represent risks to groundwater.
As well as the underground impacts described above, coal seam gas mining has severe surface impacts. It requires large numbers of wells to extract the volumes of gas that are sought – in Queensland in 2010/2011 some 18,600 gas wells were approved. Along with gas wells come roads, pipelines, tracks, compressor stations and water storage ponds – which altogether results in an industry which spreads out across the landscape and carves up rural landscapes into giant industrial zones.
Click on the following YouTube video link to see how to mine for gas:
Does Gas Need Refining, and if so, How is This Done?
Click on the following YouTube video link to see how gas is refined:
What Other Countries Export/Produce Gas?
Click on the following link to see the Top 10 natural gas exporters:
Where Are The Main Deposits Of Gas Found?
Click on the following link to see the Top 10 Countries by Providers of Gas:
Environmental Impacts
In many cases, oil and gas exploration and drilling is permitted in or near Marine Protected Areas. WWF believes that the threat posed by oil developments – and the oil and gas industry’s track record in often failing to protect the environment adequately – makes such developments too risky to be allowed near or in MPAs. However, even if exploration and drilling were prohibited in the vicinity of all marine parks and reserves, many areas of high conservation value would still be vulnerable because less than 1% of the world’s oceans are protected within MPAs.
See the following site for additional information on environmental impact:
What Is Oil Used For?
Petroleum products include transportation fuels, fuel oils for heating and electricity generation, asphalt and road oil, and the feedstocks used to make chemicals, plastics, and synthetic materials found in nearly everything we use today.
Some of the more obvious petroleum products include transportation fuels, fuel oils for heating and electricity generation, asphalt and road oil. According to the US Energy Information Administration, about 75% of the 6.79 billion barrels of petroleum used in the US in 2012 were gasoline, heating oil/diesel fuel, and jet fuel.
However, petroleum is not just used for fuel. Petroleum products are also used to make various plastics, synthetic materials and chemical products; in fact, petroleum can be found in many common household items.
Click the link for additional information:
http://alaska.conocophillips.com/what-we-do/oil-production/Pages/what-is-oil-used-for.aspx
https://www.ga.gov.au/scientific-topics/energy/resources/petroleum-resources/oil
Current Oil Value
Click on the following graph to see the current oil prices:
What Other Elements Are Found In Oil?
Oils are composed of one or several liquid hydrocarbon compounds. They differ from other hydrocarbons, such as alcohols, ketones and ethers by their non-polarity. Their difference from fats and waxes is given by the length of their molecule chains.
In particular, petroleum consists of a complex mixture of various hydrocarbons, largely of the alkane series, but may vary much in appearance and composition.
How To Mine For Oil
Remember those orange juice commercials? The ones where people tried to poke a rolling orange with a straw? It's easy to think of the oil drilling process like that: Difficult to find the bullseye for the straw, but just a matter of sucking up the juice once it's stuck. Unfortunately, the whole thing is considerably more complicated -- and dangerous.
The process begins by drilling a hole deep into the earth. To do this, a long bit attached to a "drilling string" is used. The bit varies in diameter from five to 50 inches. After each section is drilled, a steel pipe slightly smaller than the hole diameter is dropped in and often cement is used to fill the gap.
This "casing" is used to give some structural integrity to the hole and to isolated high-pressure areas of rock that can explode if allowed to release.
The drilling process is, not surprisingly, unlike using a power drill on a piece of wood. The most prominent difference is that the he hole is filled with "mud" -- a mixture of fluids, solids and, chemicals -- that lubricate the bit and help move the broken rock out of the way.
As the bit moves deeper, new sections of pipe are added to the "string." These are screwed on to the top drive at the surface in a process known as "making a connection."
Click on the YouTube video link image below to watch the mining process:
Does Oil Need to be Refined, and if so, How is This Done?
Watch the above video to see the refining process:
What Other Countries Export/Produce Oil?
Click on this chart for additional information:
Where Are the Main Deposits of Oil Found?
Use the above chart/information for a list of countries
Environmental Impact
Oil drilling has many harmful ecological and environmental effects. The process of drilling and extracting oil is complex and leaves many opportunities for error or accidents, the likes of which FEDIQUEP team members have witnessed firsthand. The piping used to transport and extract oil is made of metals, which can corrode. This corrosion causes pipes to rupture contaminates the land and waters which surround it. If the pipes do not rupture, contamination is still eminent via the large waste pits, often left unlined and open. Dust particles left from drilling may coat the surrounding areas, and flames from burning the natural gas found in oil fields cause air pollution. Lastly, oil spills, accidents, and illegal dumping of oil barrels and produced water lead to devastating ecological and health consequences that can last for decades. Many of these chemicals are detrimental or deadly to animals. Entire ecosystems can dissolve as a result of oil contamination.
Health Effects on Indigenous Communities:
“There's a stream where we always go to fish, and it's always had oil on top. We catch fish there and eat them. The fish drink the water, and since we eat them, the oil must get into us that way," a member of an indigenous community located near an oil site explained (from an interview with NPR). As a result of toxic ingestion, many people suffer from skin rashes which require daily injections to prevent swelling, and chronic headaches. Fainting spells, vomiting, chronic diarrhea, headaches and unknown skin infections are common symptoms for those impacted by oil extraction. Long term health effects include: lung disease, liver and kidney damage, damage to the nervous system, malformation, brain damage, miscarriages and many other devestating chronic conditions.
What makes oil so dangerous?
Water produced by oil drilling, or “produced water”, contains arsenic, as well as cadmium, mercury, lead, zinc and copper. These heavy metals are toxic to humans and animals, even in proportionally miniscule concentrations. In the mining regions of Peru and elsewhere, heavy metal concentrations were well above the World Health Organization’s critical levels. These chemicals and metals are not only toxic to humans, but to animals as well. This is important not only when questioning the survival of hundreds of species who may come into contact with contaminated water, air or land, but also in the question of human health.
Mercury, cadmium, arsenic, and lead bioaccumulate in living organisms. In other words, if consumed over time, the concentration of the chemical increases in comparison to the concentration in the surrounding environment. Mercury, for example, will accumulate in the organisms tissues faster than it can be excreted. Indigenous peoples have been fishing their ancestral lands and rivers for generations. Only now, the waters are toxic and the fish they are consuming have been feeding upon other organisms that have been bio accumulating metals.
What Is Coal Used For?
The most significant uses of coal are in electricity generation, steel production, cement manufacturing and as a liquid fuel. Around 6.6 billion tonnes of hard coal were used worldwide last year and 1 billion tonnes of brown coal.
Click on the following to see further uses for coal:
http://www.worldcoal.org/coal/uses-of-coal/
http://www.ga.gov.au/scientific-topics/energy/resources/coal-resources
Current Coal Value
Click on the following chart to see current coal prices:
What Other Elements Are Found in Coal?
The organic compounds in coal are composed of elements carbon,hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and trace amounts of a variety of other elements.
Click on the following link to view an elements chart:
How To Mine For Coal
Mining can take place through open cut or underground mining methods. At Griffin Coal’s Collie mines open cut mining methods are used. The mining process involves the removal of overburden and extraction of coal but can be considered as four distinct operations:
1. Top soil
Top soil is removed ahead of mining and either spread directly on shaped rehabilitation areas or stockpiled for later use. This operation is performed using dozers, front end loaders and trucks.
2. Laterite
The cap rock (up to 2 metres thick) is either ‘ripped’ by dozers or blasted and recovered for use as road surfacing material.
3. Overburden
All overburden apart from the ‘Nakina Formation’ is drilled with rotary ‘blast hole’ drilling rigs and charged with bulk explosive, typically a mixture of ammonium nitrate and fuel oil (ANFO).
After blasting, overburden is loaded by hydraulic excavator or front end loader into rear dump trucks and placed in overburden dumps. Initially these had to be placed out of the pit in order to create a large enough hole to work in. The worked over areas of the pit are now filled in, a process known as backfilling.
When the mine gets to the back firing stage, the hole gets bigger and moves slowly across the deposit. Then overburden materials are removed from the operating faces and dumped into backfill on the other side of the mine.
In its operations, Griffin Coal places all overburden into mined out areas and focuses on the rehabilitation of the newly created final land surface.
4. Coal
When overburden has been removed from the coal seam, the roof of the seam is cleaned using bulldozers. The coal seam is then drilled and blasted. Bulldozers clean down to the floor of the coal seam and front end loaders and coal trucks transport coal to either the Ewington Crushing Facility or direct to Muja Power Station.
In some areas, coal can be loaded directly into trucks using a large backhoe, without need for bulldozing. Once the coal has been extracted it is then processed.
Click on the following YouTube video link to view footage on the mining process:
Does Coal Need To Be Refined, And If So, How Is It Done?
Coal refining is nowhere near as complex as oil refining. Coal is washed with a water or chemical bath to remove some impurities. As much as 30 percent of the sulfur can be removed by washing. At the power plant, coal is pulverized to a heavy powder just before being burned.
Click on the following footage to view the refining process
What Other Countries Export/Produce Coal?
Where Are The Main Deposits of Coal Found?
Click here to find the countries that hold the main deposits of coal
Environmental Impact
Coal mining, particularly surface mining, requires large areas of land to be temporarily disturbed. This raises a number of environmental challenges, including soil erosion, dust, noise and water pollution, and impacts on local biodiversity. Steps are taken in modern mining operations to minimise impacts on all aspects of the environment. By carefully pre-planning projects, implementing pollution control measures, monitoring the effects of mining and rehabilitating mined areas, the coal industry minimises the impact of its activities on the neighbouring community, the immediate environment and on long-term land capability.
Land Disturbance
In best practice, studies of the immediate environment are carried out several years before a coal mine opens in order to define the existing conditions and to identify potential problems. The studies look at the impact of mining on surface and ground water, soils, local land use, native vegetation and wildlife populations. Computer simulations can be undertaken to model impacts on the local environment. The findings are then reviewed as part of the process leading to the award of a mining permit by the relevant government authorities.
Mine Subsidence
Mine subsidence can be a problem with underground coal mining, whereby the ground level lowers as a result of coal having been mined beneath. A thorough understanding of subsistence patterns in a particular region allows the effects of underground mining on the surface to be quantified. The coal mining industry uses a range of engineering techniques to design the layout and dimensions of its underground mine workings so that surface subsidence can be anticipated and controlled. This ensures the safe, maximum recovery of a coal resource, while providing protection to other land uses.
Water Pollution
Mine operations work to improve their water management, aiming to reduce demand through efficiency, technology and the use of lower quality and recycled water. Water pollution is controlled by carefully separating the water runoff from undisturbed areas from water which contains sediments or salt from mine workings. Clean runoff can be discharged into surrounding water courses, while other water is treated and can be reused such as for dust suppression and in coal preparation plants.
Acid mine drainage
Acid mine drainage (AMD) can be a challenge at coal mining operations. AMD is metal-rich water formed from the chemical reaction between water and rocks containing sulphur-bearing minerals. The runoff formed is usually acidic and frequently comes from areas where ore- or coal mining activities have exposed rocks containing pyrite, a sulphur-bearing mineral. However, metal-rich drainage can also occur in mineralised areas that have not been mined. AMD is formed when the pyrite reacts with air and water to form sulphuric acid and dissolved iron. This acid run-off dissolves heavy metals such as copper, lead and mercury into ground and surface water.
There are mine management methods that can minimise the problem of AMD, and effective mine design can keep water away from acid generating materials and help prevent AMD occurring. AMD can be treated actively or passively.
Active treatment involves installing a water treatment plant, where the AMD is first dosed with lime to neutralise the acid and then passed through settling tanks to remove the sediment and particulate metals.
Passive treatment aims to develop a self-operating system that can treat the effluent without constant human intervention.
Source : http://www.worldcoal.org/coal-the-environment/coal-mining-the-environment/
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